2019年9月23日月曜日

TOEFL iBT Independent Writing Suppose you have enough money to buy a book or watch a movie. Which would you rather spend the money on, the book or the movie? - revised -

Writing Topic: Suppose you have enough money to buy a book or watch a movie. Which would you rather spend the money on, the book or the movie?


Let’s Think
1.      Which of the following two questions do you think is more appropriate for the thesis sentence of the essay on this topic?
a.      I think that it is better to spend money on a book than it is to spend money on a movie.
b.      I would choose to spend the money on a book rather than on a movie if I had enough money to buy a book or watch a movie.

-       Note the expression “Which would you rather spend the money on? This question is asking about your choice/preference. The answer can be subjective. You do not necessarily have to make an objective judgment.

2.      Compare and contrast the merits of buying a book and watching a movie.


Hints for Points


a book
a movie
a
a physical material
an experience
b
like your best friendyou choose it carefully
 and repeatedly return to it.
like friends or fashionyou enjoy their
novelty but most of them just come and go.
c
Non-fiction: a lot of detailed information
fiction: about what is going on in
the character’s mind
non-fiction: a brief, digested explanation
fiction: the plot and point of the original story
d
academic training
(vocabulary, sentence structure, etc.)
composite art
 (picture, music, fashion, etc.)
                                                                                          

Sample Comparison
The experience you have through reading feels more real than that you have through watching a movie. When you read, you draw on your own experience to understand what is written, and it makes the story more real to you. For example, when the leading character is scolded by a strict teacher, you think of a particular teacher in your elementary school and remember the shock and embarrassment you felt when you were scolded by her. In a movie, the character of a strict teacher is presented through the interpretation of the actor and the director, which is different from your own image. Although it is always exciting and inspiring and therefore enjoyable to see the images created by great actors and directors, when it comes to reality, no other interpretation can beat your own. The teacher in your memory is scarier than any interpretation by professionals. The world you build through reading is more real and intimate to you, and hence reading often gives you more satisfaction than watching a move.

Your Juxtaposition of one of the differences between buying a book and watching a movie:












Sample Body Structures
A    valueA book which costs a movie ticket is usually very valuable.
experienceA book will keep me awake at night while a movie ends in a couple of hours,
My choiceMy tight schedule does not allow me to read a book, so I would go see a movie.

B    Point 1A book provides more detailed information.
Point 2Reading makes you more mature and develops your language ability.
Counterargument-treatmentIt is true that watching a movie takes less time to finish a story, but the effect is weaker than reading. The difference is like that between a tour and a stay.

Your Sample Body Structure
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3 / Counterargument-treatment


Paragraph development
Sample Paragraph Development of Point 1 in the Essay Plan above
Main Idea (主張)
A book can make you more mature more often than a movie can.
Supporting Details-general (詳細 - ―般的)
Reading develops your thoughts and emotions more effectively than watching a movie, For example, novels tell you the characters’ thoughts and feelings in detail.
Supporting Details -specific (詳細 - 具体的)
While watching an episode of the Harry Potter Series, for instance, you just see some troubled face of Harry when he has difficulty in mastering an important magic for defense, in the book you see precisely what is going on in his mind, that is, his mixed feelings: an urge to achieve the magic, frustration, and the secret desire to fail again as he can see his late father’s image whenever he fails.  
Follow-up (補足)
Of course a movie can use expressions and narratives for the same purpose, but the effect is limited. You just understand or feel the same way. On the other hand, literature develops a piece of real life in you. By reading word by word and going through each single thought and feeling that are in Harry’s mind, you will actually own this orphan’s longing for his father which is stronger than the fear of death.
Conclusion (結論)
You can enrich yourself in humanity by reading a good book. 



Your Sample Paragraph Development
Main Idea (主張)


Supporting Details-general (詳細 - ―般的)


Supporting Details -specific (詳細 - 具体的)





Follow-up (補足)




Conclusion (結論)





2019年9月16日月曜日

国際教養学部AO入試 補助教材 nuclear weapons

Nuclear weapons: experts alarmed by new Pentagon 'war-fighting' doctrine

The Guardian    June 19, 2019

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/19/nuclear-weapons-pentagon-us-military-doctrine



Questions
1       According to the excerpt, how does US nuclear policy seem to have changed?
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   
2       Research and answer the following questions.
a.    How many nuclear arms exist now? Which countries have the most?
                                                                                                   
b.    Name countries that are allowed to have nuclear weapons.
                                                                                                   
c.     Name countries that are not allowed to have nuclear weapons but have them.
                                                                                                   
d.    Which parts of the planet do you think a nuclear war can start? Why?
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   






Answer Keys

1       According to the excerpt, how does US nuclear policy seem to have changed?
Nuclear weapons have been thought to be used as deterrent to show the power of the country, but it seems that the US keeps nuclear weapons with a view to using them.
(reference: During the cold war, nuclear arms race was intensified. In the past decades, efforts of nuclear disarmament were made, but in recent years it had been reported that nuclear arms race started again.)

2       Research and answer the following questions.
a.    How many nuclear warheads exist now? Which countries have the most?
There are approximately 13,890 nuclear warheads in the world now. U.S. and Russia have 90 % of them, each having about half of them.

b.    Name countries that are allowed to have nuclear weapons.
U.S., Russia, England, China, and France

c.     Name countries that are not allowed to have nuclear weapons but have them.
India, Pakistan, North Korea, and, as an open secret, Israel

d.    Which part of the planet do you think a nuclear war can start? Why?
India and Pakistan have been in bad terms over Kashmir and religious differences. Yemen is in a proxy war between Saudi Arabia, and U.A.E., and Iran, in other words, between Sunni and Shi’ar. The U.S. is supplying weapons to the former. Recent drone attack on the Saudi oil facilities was carried out by rebels in Yemen who are backed by Iran. Iran has been provoked by the U.S for a long time, and therefore, war could breakout directly between them, too.


2019年9月15日日曜日

早稲田国際教養AO Jury in America - revised -


陪審員制度と民主主義の関係に関する出題です。本文後半では犯罪以外の裁判(通民事裁判)に陪審員制度が適応される場合特に民主主義の完全な実現に近づく理由が列挙されています。具体的にどんな民主主義の実現を意味するのかを考えながら読みましょう。

問1民事裁判への陪審員制度の適用が民主主義社会の実現・成熟に役立つという主張の理由の列挙を粘って注意深くまとめることが本番で良い答案を書くことにつながります。また、「民主主義」と「裁判」に関する文章であることを意識して本文の「平等の精神」や「判決への責任」といった語を入れ忘れないようにしましょう。
問2 本文後半の要約問題です。non-criminal casesの方が全ての人に関係があるので民主主義の実現により役立つという最初のポイントと、その後繰り返されるフレーズ”more true with non-criminal cases” によって陪審員制度の利点がnon-criminal casesへの適用により更に増すことを述べている部分を丁寧に要約しましょう。
問3 本文で称賛されているアメリカ型の陪審員制度ですが、日本に導入した場合の問題点を尋ねています。民主主義の成熟度や風土の違いなどを考えて答えてみましょう。アメリカで良くても日本では問題になると思う理由を説明してください。また民主主義や陪審員制度自体の問題点も考えてみましょう。この出題後、日本でも裁判員制度が実施されました。その後実際に問題点も指摘されています。以下の解答のポイントの問3の解答のポイント例や関連記事等を読んでまとめておきましょう。


解答のポイント
主題:アメリカの陪審員制度は全国民が担当する可能性があるので全国民の選挙権と共に民主主義の究極の柱だ。特に民事裁判は全国民に関わる問題であるため、国民主権による自由平等な精神に基づいた民主主義を実現し真の市民を育てる。
本文該当箇所  前半第1段落 The institution of the jury may be aristocratic or democratic, according to the class form which the jurors are taken; but it always preserves its republican character, in that it places the real direction of society in the hands of the governed, and not in that of the government.. 陪審員制度は陪審員が選ばれる階級によって貴族的な場合もあれば民主的な場合もあるが、政府ではなく国民の手に社会の真の方向性を託すという点において、常に共和制的な性格を保っている。 2段落 In the United States the same system is applied to the whole people. アメリカ合衆国では同制度(陪審員制度)が国民全体に適用される。The jury system as it is understood in America appears to me to be as extreme a consequence of the sovereignty of the people as the universal right to vote. アメリカで理解されているような陪審員制度は普通選挙権と同じくらい究極の国民主権の結果だと私には思える。 後半第1段落 When the jury acts also on non-criminal cases, its application is constantly visible; it affects all the interests of the community; everyone co-operates in its work: it thus penetrates into all the activities of life, it fashions the human mind to its peculiar forms, and it is gradually associated with the idea of justice itself. 陪審員制度が民事裁判にも適応されると、その適応は常に可視的であり、地域の関係者全てに影響を与え、皆が協力する。従って生活の全ての活動に浸透し、人の精神をその独特の形に作り、次第に正義自体の観点と結び付けられる。後半第2段落最後 The jury teaches every man not to reject the responsibility of his own actions and impresses him with that manly confidence without which no political virtue can exist. 陪審員制度は全ての人に自信の行動の責任を拒絶しないよう教え、それなくして政治の美徳は存在しない堂々とした自信を認識させる。It invests each citizen with a kind of supremacy 市民各自にある種の主権を授ける。By obliging men to turn their attention to other affairs than their won, it rubs off the private selfishness which is the rust of society. 市民各自の注目を自身の事ではなく他人の事に向けさせることによって、陪審員制度は社会の錆である個人的な自己中心主義をそぎ落とすのだ。

各段落の要旨
前半
第1段落  罪を裁くものは最高権力者なので、陪審員制度は国民主権の実現であり国の方向性を決める。
2段落  アメリカの陪審員は国民から選ばれるので民主主義の究極の結果だ。
後半
1段落  政治の観点から、民事裁判に陪審員制度が適用されると、常に世間に注目され、全国民に影響し、国民全員が協力するので人生の全ての活動に浸透し、精神を形作り、次第に正義の観念を植え付ける。
2段落  陪審制度は民事裁判に適応される時特に、時代の変化に耐えて自由を守り(l. 33- 38)、国の性格に影響を与え(l. 38-40)、裁判官の精神を教えて被告の保護と人権の観念を国民に与え(l. 40-46)、公正の実践を教え(l. 46-50)、政治参加を意識させ(l. 50-53)、自分勝手な考えを減らして国民主権の認識と実現に寄与する (l. 53-56)

問1  文章の筆者の主張を自分の言葉で説明してください。
考え方  言い換えを必ずする。 本文該当箇所 上記「主題」と配布プリント別紙参照。

問2  筆者は刑事裁判と民事裁判における陪審員制度の使用の結果起こるアメリカ社会への影響の違いを説明しています。違いは何ですか。細かく説明してください。
考え方  主に後半の内容(民事裁判の特徴)をまとめる。本文最後(後半第2段落の最後、l. 50-56)には”more true with non-criminal cases”というフレーズがありませんがそこまでの流れ(陪審員制度が民事裁判に適応された場合民主主義の実現に大いに貢献するという内容)のまとめ(民事裁判関連)だと考えられる。刑事裁判における陪審員制度の使用は、前半第1段落。
本文該当箇所  別紙および上記各段落の要旨と以下参照:
刑事裁判
.【国民を裁く立場(主権者の立場)にする】He who punishes the criminal is therefore the real master of society. Now, the institution of the jury raises the people itself, or at least a class of citizens, to the bench of judges. 従って罪人を罰する者は社会の真の主人である。そして陪審員制度は国民そのもの(またはその階級の市民)を裁判官の座に据える。
民事裁判
1.【民主政治を反映する】後半第1段落I am so entirely convinced that the jury is foremost a political institution that I still consider it in this light when it is applied in non-criminal, or civil, cases. When the jury acts also on non-criminal cases, its application is constantly visible; it affects all the interests of the community; everyone co-operates in its work: it thus penetrates into all the activities of life, it fashions the human mind to its peculiar forms, and it is gradually associated with the idea of justice itself. 私は陪審員制度がまず第一に政治制度だと完全に確信しているので陪審員制度が刑事裁判以外の、言い換えれば民事裁判に適用される場合もこの視点(陪審員制度=政治制度)で陪審員制度を考えている。陪審員制度が民事裁判にも適応されると、その適用は常に可視的であり、地域の関係者全てに影響を与え、皆が協力する。従って生活の全ての活動に浸透し、人の精神をその独特の形に作り、次第に正義自体の観点と結び付けられる。
2.【時代や人の変化に耐えて自由を守る】後半第2段落(l. 33- 38) The institution of the jury, if limited to criminal cases, is always in danger; but when once it is introduced into non-criminal proceedings, it defies the aggressions of time and man. If it had been as easy to remove the jury from the customs as from the laws of England, it would have died away under the Tudor monarchs; and the non-criminal jury did in reality in the period of history save the liberties of England. 陪審員制度は刑事裁判に限られている場合は常に消滅の危機にある。しかしひとたび民事裁判の過程に導入されると時間と人からの攻撃に反抗する。もしイギリスの陪審員制度を慣習から取り除くのが法律から取り除くのと同じくらい容易であったならチューダー朝君主たちのもとで陪審員制度はなくなっていただろう。そして民事裁判の陪審員制度は実際にその歴史上の期間中イギリスの自由を守ったのだった。
3.【国の性格を決定する】(l. 38-40) In whatever manner the jury may be used, it cannot fail to exercise a powerful influence upon the national character; but this influence is greatly increased when the jury is used in non-criminal cases. 陪審員制度がどのような形で使われようが必ず国の性格に強い影響を与えるが、この影響は民事の場合に大幅に増大する。
4.【自由主義国家の基盤となる裁判官の精神を国民に伝える】(l. 40-46) The jury, and especially the non-criminal jury, saves to introduce the spirit of the judges into the minds of all of the citizens; and this spirit; and this spirit, with all of the habits which are associated with that spirit, is the soundest preparation for free institutions. 陪審員、特に民事裁判の陪審員は判事の精神を全国民の精神に導入する。そしてこの精神は関連するすべての習慣と共に自由な組織への最も強固な準備である。
5.【被告の尊厳と人権およびの公正の観念を教える】(l. 46-50) The jury gives all classes a respect for the thing judges and the concept of human rights. If these two elements were to be removed, the love of independence would become a mere destructive passion. It teaches It teaches men to practice fairness; every man learns to judge his neighbor as he would himself be judged. And this is especially true of the jury in non-criminal cases; for while the number of persons who have the chance of being involved in ca criminal prosecution is small, everyone has the chance of being involved in a non-criminal case. 陪審員制度は裁かれるものに対する敬意と人権の観念を全階級の国民に与える。仮にこの二つの要素が除去された場合、自立への愛は単なる破壊的熱情になるだろう。陪審員は人に公正の実践を教える。自分が裁いて欲しいように隣人を裁くように皆がなるのだ。そしてこれは特に民事裁判の陪審員制度に当てはまる。というのも刑事訴追に関わる可能性の有る人の数は少ない一方で全国民が民事裁判に関わる可能性を有するからである。
6.【政治参加の意識を植え付ける】(l. 50-53) The jury teaches every man not to reject the responsibility of his own actions and impresses him with that manly confidence towards society and the part which they take in its government. 陪審員制度は全ての人に、自身の行動の責任を拒絶しないことを教え、それなしでは政治的美徳は存在しないあの社会に対する勇ましい自信と政治の中で自身の果たす役割を自分に印象付ける。
7.【他者の問題に目を向けさせて自己中心的な考えをなくすことにより、国民主権を認識させ、実現する】(l. 53-56) It invests each citizen with a kind of supremacy; it makes them all feel the duties which they are bound to discharge towards society and the part which they take in its government. By obliging men to turn their attention to other affairs than their own, it rubs off the private selfishness which is the rust of society. 陪審員制度は国民各自にある種の主権を与える。社会に対し行使することになっている義務と政府内で果たす役割を国民全員に感じさせるのだ。私事以外の問題に意識を向けるよう義務付けることによって、陪審制度は社会の錆である私的自己中心主義をそぎ落とす。


問3  日本政府は現在裁判官と裁判員制度を組み合わせた使用の実験を行っています。第2次大戦後日本は刑事・民事裁判両方で裁判員よりも裁判官に頼ってきました。仮に日本が将来アメリカで使用されているのと同じ陪審員制度を採用することを決定したとしてください。日本は何か問題に遭遇すると思いますか?細かく説明してください。
考え方  この問題は裁判員制度発足以前のもの。裁判員制度は既に開始しているが、刑事裁判のみで実施されている。最終段落にある裁判員制度の特徴と日本の民主主義や日本社会の特徴を照らし合わせながら考えてみる。また、陪審員制度自体の問題点が日本で大きな問題となるかどうかも考えてみる。
解答のポイント例 
Most Japanese are not ready for the jury system Since Japanese democracy is not deep-rooted but is just regarded as the regime which was replaced with the imperialism after WWII, many of the jurors might not have thought or never have the will to think about fairness, responsibility as a citizen or influence on the Japanese society and its future. Also, many citizens are so apathetic to social issues Thus, intensive preparation for the court to educate the jury in related matters may be necessary, and they could make a wrong verdict,  日本では民主主義は深く根づいておらず第2次大戦後帝国主義に取って代わった支配体制とみなされているにすぎないので、裁判員の多くが公正さや市民としての責任、日本社会とその将来への影響などについて考えてみたことがないし考える気もないかもしれない。また、社会問題への関心が低い人が多い。従って関連事項の解説等の準備が必要になり、しかも間違ったに評決を下す可能性がある。
Democracy, decision-making by majority voting, is not always right. Classes, racial or ethnic prejudices might easily affect the verdict depending on the proportion of jury members whose thoughts are affected by such factors. There is a report that a jury whose members are predominantly white tend to sentence a black defendant to death more often than a less- white jury in the US. In Japan, where foreign residents are extreme minorities and there are deep-rooted discriminations against Korean residents, for example, the accused who is a Korean resident is doomed to lose the case. The whole process will be tremendously affected by how many members can think and act impartially in the jury.  民主主義(多数決による決定)が必ずしも正しいとは限らない。階級や人種、民族的偏見が、それらに影響される裁判員の割合によって評決に影響するかもしれない。アメリカでは白人多数の陪審員はそうでない陪審員よりも頻繁に黒人の被告を死刑にするという報告がある。外国人居住者が極端な少数派であり韓国籍の住民に深く根差した差別がある日本では例えば韓国籍の住民が被告の場合裁判に負ける可能性が高い。裁判の過程全てが偏りなく考え行動できる人が裁判員の中に何人いるかによって非常に大きな影響を受けるだろう。
Only those who will sign the form that he can take responsibility in case of death sentence will be in the jury of murder cases, and thus jury of murder cases consists of only those who are at least not against death penalty. This is a serious flaw in the system. Japan has not abolished death sentence and the rates of those against abolition is very high, so execution rates may go up. In fact, there already are Japanese people who voted for death sentence and realize the cruelty and blame themselves later.  殺人事件の場合、死刑判決の責任を取る意志を表明する書類に署名した者のみが陪審員になるので、殺人事件の陪審員は少なくとも死刑に反対ではない人のみから成る。これは陪審員制度自体の欠点である。日本は死刑があり廃止に反対する人の比率は非常に高い、従って死刑の回数が増えるかもしれない。事実、死刑判決を下してその後残酷さを認識し自分を責める日本人が既に存在する
In the case of the on-going security-related law suits, since nearly 70 percent of the Japanese think it unconstitutional and the way Abe administration passed the law was that of undemocratic. Thus, if the jury is applied to this civil case, the government will lose. However, the system is limited to criminal cases in Japan. Therefore, it does not fully work for people. 現在進行中の安全保障関連法案訴訟の場合、国民の70%近くがこの法は違憲であり安倍政権の可決の仕方を非民主的と考えている。従って、陪審員制度がこの民事裁判に適用された場合は政府が敗訴するだろう。しかし、日本では陪審員制度は刑事裁判に限られている。従って完全には国民のために機能していない。